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| “India’s unique path — a nation balancing democracy, socialism, and liberalisation in its quest for inclusive development.”(Representing AI image) |
A Sixth of Humanity: Independent India’s Development Odyssey
- Dr.Sanjaykumar pawar
Table of Contents
- Introduction
- The Four-fold Transformations: State, Economy, Society, Nation
- The Peculiar Indian Model: “Democracy before Development”, Services before Industrialisation
- Key Data & Analytical Insights
- Contradictions, Risks and Where India Stands Today
- Lessons from the Odyssey: Views & Opinions
- Conclusion
- FAQs
- Sources
Introduction
India’s journey as a modern, independent nation is one of the most remarkable stories in global development history. In 1947, when the country gained independence, it inherited immense challenges — a population of over 350 million (about one-seventh of humanity), widespread poverty, low literacy rates, and a largely agrarian economy. Yet, despite these odds, India chose a bold and unconventional path: to build a democratic, pluralistic society while simultaneously pursuing economic growth and social transformation.
In their new book, A Sixth of Humanity: Independent India’s Development Odyssey, former Chief Economic Adviser Arvind Subramanian and political scientist Devesh Kapur explore this incredible experiment. Drawing on decades of research and policy analysis, they decode how India managed four monumental transitions — state-building, economic growth, social reform, and national integration — all at once. The authors argue that India’s development model defies conventional wisdom, blending democracy, socialism, and liberalisation in a way few nations have dared.
What makes India’s story truly unique is its precocity — its tendency to leap ahead in some areas while lagging in others. Unlike most countries that industrialised before democratising, India introduced universal suffrage and democratic governance right from independence. Later, instead of mass manufacturing, India’s growth took off through knowledge-intensive services like information technology and finance. Globalisation, too, benefited the skilled elite before reaching the broader population.
This blog delves into Subramanian and Kapur’s insights to unpack the Indian development paradox: a nation that grew rapidly yet unevenly, that celebrated democracy yet struggled with deep inequality. By connecting their arguments with credible data and global comparisons, we aim to understand what India’s past seven decades teach us — and what this means for its future as one-sixth of humanity’s most ambitious experiment.
2. The Four-fold Transformations: State, Economy, Society, Nation
In A Sixth of Humanity: Independent India’s Development Odyssey, Arvind Subramanian and Devesh Kapur explore India’s journey through four deeply interwoven transformations — building a modern state, creating a viable economy, transforming society, and forging cohesive nationhood. Unlike many nations that progressed through these stages sequentially, India embarked on all four simultaneously under the world’s largest democracy. This ambitious experiment shaped the country’s unique development model — one rooted in inclusion, resilience, and complexity.
2.1 Building a Modern State
At independence in 1947, India inherited a fragmented colonial administration, limited infrastructure, and immense diversity — over 1,600 languages, multiple religions, and a deeply stratified caste system. Yet, the new nation chose an extraordinary path: to become a democratic republic with universal adult suffrage. This meant that millions of people, many of whom were illiterate or poor, were given a political voice from the very beginning.
The architects of modern India — from Jawaharlal Nehru to B. R. Ambedkar — believed that democracy was not a reward for development but its very foundation. As Subramanian and Kapur argue, this was both India’s greatest strength and its biggest challenge. A democratic structure brought legitimacy and inclusion, but it also constrained the state’s ability to take tough, technocratic decisions.
Over time, India’s institutions — Parliament, the judiciary, the Election Commission, and an active press — have strengthened, even if unevenly. The “state-building” phase remains ongoing, as governance reforms, fiscal capacity, and institutional efficiency continue to evolve. Yet, the democratic framework has provided remarkable political stability to a nation of over 1.4 billion people — an achievement unparalleled in the developing world.
2.2 Creating a Viable Economy
The second pillar of India’s transformation has been economic development. From a GDP growth rate of barely 3 percent in the first three decades after independence, India has emerged as one of the fastest-growing major economies, averaging 6–7 percent in recent years. However, its growth trajectory defied conventional patterns.
Unlike East Asia, where industrialisation preceded services growth, India leapfrogged straight into a service-led economy. The IT revolution of the 1990s and the rise of skilled, globally competitive sectors such as software, finance, and telecommunications propelled growth. Yet, this shift came at a cost — the manufacturing sector, which could have absorbed millions of low-skilled workers, lagged behind.
Subramanian and Kapur describe this as a “precocious” development path: India adopted a high-skill, technology-driven model before building a strong industrial base. Economic liberalisation in 1991 unlocked private enterprise and foreign investment, but challenges such as job creation, income inequality, and weak infrastructure persist. The authors argue that sustaining growth now requires expanding manufacturing, improving logistics, and strengthening the fiscal capacity of the state to deliver public goods.
2.3 Transforming Society
The third transformation — social change — has perhaps been the most complex. At independence, India was burdened by deep social hierarchies, gender inequality, and low literacy. Democracy and affirmative action (such as reservations for Scheduled Castes and Tribes) gradually expanded inclusion, but social transformation has been uneven across regions and communities.
Literacy and life expectancy have risen dramatically — literacy from about 18 percent in 1951 to over 77 percent today, and life expectancy from 32 years to more than 70. The expansion of education, healthcare, and digital access has empowered millions. Yet, caste and gender disparities remain entrenched, and access to quality education and health services varies widely between states.
Subramanian and Kapur emphasise that social inclusion has sometimes delayed economic reform. Political leaders often prioritized redistribution and welfare to maintain democratic legitimacy, sometimes at the cost of long-term structural reforms. Still, India’s democratic social contract has fostered a vibrant civil society, a thriving media, and increasing awareness of rights and equality. The transformation continues as India grapples with balancing growth with justice.
2.4 Forging Cohesive Nationhood
Perhaps the most under-appreciated yet vital transformation has been the forging of a cohesive national identity. With its immense linguistic, religious, and regional diversity, India faced the monumental task of building unity without uniformity. Subramanian and Kapur highlight that India’s nation-building effort was not based on ethnic or religious homogeneity but on constitutional values — democracy, secularism, and federalism.
The federal structure allowed regional aspirations to coexist with national goals. Despite periodic tensions — from linguistic reorganisation in the 1950s to recent debates over identity and nationalism — India has remained largely united. Cultural pluralism, democratic participation, and decentralised governance have acted as glue holding the union together.
The authors caution, however, that maintaining this cohesion requires constant negotiation between central authority and regional autonomy, between economic growth and cultural preservation. Nation-building, they note, is not a one-time event but an ongoing process that evolves with each generation.
India’s Fourfold Experiment: All at Once
What sets India apart, Subramanian and Kapur argue, is not just the scale of these transformations but their simultaneity. Most nations first build strong states, then industrialise, then reform society, and finally shape national identity. India attempted all four at once — within a democratic framework.
This multidimensional experiment created tensions but also resilience. The coexistence of democracy and development, inclusion and aspiration, diversity and unity has given India a distinctive path that continues to influence global debates on governance and growth.
3. The Peculiar Indian Model: “Democracy Before Development”, Services Before Industrialisation
In A Sixth of Humanity: Independent India’s Development Odyssey, Arvind Subramanian and Devesh Kapur identify what makes India’s economic and political evolution stand apart from other emerging nations. They describe India as a “precocious democracy” with a “peculiar growth model.” Unlike countries in East Asia or the West that followed a predictable path — strong state → industrialisation → democracy — India reversed the order. It chose democracy first, and later, growth driven by services instead of manufacturing. This reversal has defined both India’s successes and its challenges over the past seven decades.
3.1 Democracy Came First
When India became independent in 1947, it made a radical choice. Instead of waiting to become rich before becoming democratic — as most modernisation theorists would recommend — India granted universal adult suffrage immediately. Every adult citizen, regardless of caste, gender, or literacy, had a vote. This was revolutionary for a nation with widespread poverty and illiteracy.
Subramanian and Kapur argue that India “defied the modernisation hypothesis” — the theory that democracy usually follows economic prosperity. In India’s case, democracy was not a result of development but its starting point.
This early embrace of democracy brought both advantages and trade-offs:
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Advantages:
Democracy gave India legitimacy, strengthened its institutions, and built a sense of national inclusion. Citizens felt ownership of the political process. Regular elections, an independent judiciary, and a vibrant press became cornerstones of stability. These institutions have allowed India to navigate crises — from famines to financial shocks — without political collapse. -
Trade-offs:
However, democracy also imposed constraints. Populist politics often made it difficult for governments to pursue unpopular but necessary reforms, such as cutting subsidies or taxing agricultural income. Fiscal discipline suffered — as Subramanian and Kapur note, India’s “fiscal state remained weak despite decades of planning.” Governments were pressured to spend on immediate welfare rather than long-term investments in infrastructure or education.
In essence, India’s decision to put democracy before development created a more inclusive but slower growth model. The trade-off was between speed and sustainability — a model that prioritised legitimacy and participation over authoritarian efficiency.
3.2 Services and Skill-Intensive Manufacturing Rather Than Labour-Intensive Manufacturing
The second peculiarity lies in India’s economic structure. Most nations — especially in East Asia — began their growth story with labour-intensive manufacturing. They industrialised through exports of textiles, electronics, and consumer goods, absorbing millions of workers from agriculture into factories. India, however, took a very different route.
As Subramanian’s IMF paper notes, India’s growth was “idiosyncratic — services rather than manufacturing is widely noted, and within manufacturing, skill-intensive rather than labour-intensive production has been emphasised.”
From the 1990s onward, India leapfrogged into the knowledge economy. The information technology and software services boom turned India into a global outsourcing hub. The services sector now contributes over 55% of GDP, employing millions in IT, finance, telecommunications, and logistics.
This shift created global champions — Infosys, TCS, and Wipro — and a thriving middle class. However, it also left behind millions of less-skilled workers. Manufacturing, which typically absorbs surplus rural labour, remained small, contributing only about 17% of GDP. As a result, the employment challenge became India’s central economic dilemma — growth without enough jobs.
The focus on high-skill industries widened income inequality. Cities like Bengaluru and Hyderabad flourished, while rural and less-educated populations lagged. The authors highlight this as a key reason India’s growth, though impressive, remains uneven and exclusionary.
For the future, they argue, India must find a balance: nurturing its high-tech edge while reviving manufacturing through sectors like electronics, renewable energy, and food processing that can employ millions.
3.3 Globalisation That Favoured the Elite
The third dimension of India’s peculiar model concerns globalisation. While East Asian economies like China or Vietnam leveraged globalisation to build export-driven manufacturing hubs, India’s integration with the world economy took a different shape.
India’s openness benefited its skilled professionals far more than its working class. Globalisation boosted software exports, financial services, and pharmaceuticals, creating a globally connected elite class fluent in English and technology. The IT services boom turned India into a back-office powerhouse for the world.
However, this form of integration favoured the top 10–15% of the population — those with access to education and digital skills — while leaving large sections behind. Labour-intensive industries such as garments, footwear, and consumer goods never reached their potential because of rigid labour laws, inadequate logistics, and poor infrastructure.
Subramanian and Kapur note that this created a dual economy: one globally competitive and another domestic and informal. Over 80% of India’s workforce remains in the informal sector, often without social security or job stability. The authors argue that future reforms must focus on inclusive globalisation — building trade competitiveness in areas that can lift the poor, not just the educated elite.
India’s Distinct Path: Not Following China, But Forging Its Own
In conclusion, India’s development odyssey stands apart not because it failed to replicate East Asia, but because it chose a different route. It is a nation that prioritised democracy over authoritarian growth, and services over manufacturing. These choices have produced a unique blend of resilience, innovation, and inequality.
Subramanian and Kapur encourage readers to see India’s trajectory not as an imitation of China or the West, but as an independent experiment — one-sixth of humanity attempting to grow, reform, and democratise all at once. India’s peculiar model, with all its contradictions, remains one of the most fascinating development stories of the modern world.
4. Key Data & Analytical Insights
In A Sixth of Humanity: Independent India’s Development Odyssey, Arvind Subramanian and Devesh Kapur do more than narrate India’s story — they analyze it through hard data and empirical evidence. Their findings, along with insights from institutions like the World Bank, IMF, and prominent scholars such as Ashutosh Varshney, paint a nuanced picture of India’s achievements and ongoing challenges. This section explores the data behind India’s growth, poverty reduction, and the paradoxes within its “precocious” development model — where democracy preceded wealth, and services outpaced manufacturing.
4.1 Growth and Poverty Reduction
India’s economic transformation over the past two decades has been nothing short of remarkable. According to the World Bank (2025), India’s economy has quadrupled in size since 2000, and its per capita income has nearly tripled, making it one of the world’s five largest economies. Its global share of GDP has doubled — from 1.6% in 2000 to 3.4% in 2023, reflecting a substantial rise in economic power.
The momentum continues. In FY 2024–25, India recorded 6.5% GDP growth, with agriculture expanding by 4.6% and exports growing by 6.3%. These figures reveal the economy’s resilience despite global headwinds, inflation, and geopolitical tensions.
Perhaps the most striking achievement lies in poverty reduction. World Bank estimates show that extreme poverty fell from 16.2% in 2011–12 to just 2.3% in 2022–23. Millions have been lifted above the poverty line, driven by targeted social welfare schemes, rural employment programs, and improved access to basic services. Initiatives like Digital India, PM-KISAN, and Jan Dhan Yojana have further enhanced financial inclusion.
However, as Subramanian and Kapur note, these gains mask deeper disparities. While urban areas and skilled professionals have prospered, large segments of the rural and informal workforce still face income stagnation. India’s growth has been broad, but not always deep — a success story still shadowed by inequality.
4.2 State Capacity, Democracy, and Public Goods
India’s democracy is both its greatest strength and its biggest structural constraint. Subramanian and Kapur emphasize that state capacity — the ability of government institutions to effectively deliver public goods — remains uneven. Despite strong macroeconomic growth, India’s fiscal state is weak, with persistent budget deficits averaging 11–12% of GDP. This limits its ability to invest in education, healthcare, and infrastructure — the very foundations of inclusive growth.
Political scientist Ashutosh Varshney, in India’s Democracy at 70, makes a crucial observation: while democracy has kept India politically stable and inclusive, it has also produced policy compromises that sometimes favor populism over long-term structural reform. As he notes, “Democracy demands that low-income groups vote, but growth often benefits the better-off.”
In other words, India’s democratic vibrancy sometimes results in fiscal fragmentation — numerous welfare schemes without matching improvements in productivity or state efficiency. Subramanian and Kapur argue that strengthening the capacity of the Indian state — from tax collection to local governance — is essential if India is to sustain growth and deliver equitable development.
4.3 Manufacturing vs Services: Skill vs Labour-Intensive Growth
India’s growth model stands out because it skipped the traditional industrialisation stage seen in countries like China or South Korea. As highlighted in Subramanian’s IMF Working Paper (2006), India has “emphasised skill-intensive rather than labour-intensive manufacturing.”
This pattern has shaped both the nature of employment and inequality. High-skill industries such as IT, pharmaceuticals, and finance have thrived, while sectors like textiles, footwear, and light manufacturing — traditionally large job creators — have lagged. As a result, India’s service-led growth has generated fewer opportunities for low-skilled workers, creating what economists call “jobless growth.”
The Diplomat (2025) notes that despite being the world’s fifth-largest economy, India’s per capita GDP remains around USD 2,800, and its Human Development Index (HDI) ranks near 130th globally. These figures reveal that while India has created wealth, it has struggled to distribute it evenly or translate it into higher living standards.
This “service-first” model has given India global prestige — particularly in technology and digital services — but it also exposes vulnerabilities. Without a strong manufacturing base, India risks missing the employment dividend that industrialization traditionally provides to developing nations.
4.4 Regional and Social Divergence
One of the most critical insights from the “Precocious Development Model” (MCRHRD, 2019) is the growing divergence between Indian states. Data shows that some states grow at 9–10% annually, while others barely reach 3–4%. States like Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Karnataka have become industrial and service hubs, while Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, and Odisha lag in per capita income and infrastructure.
This unevenness extends beyond regions — to caste, gender, and urban–rural divides. For example, urban India enjoys far better healthcare, education, and employment opportunities than rural India. Women’s labour force participation remains below 25%, one of the lowest in the world. Meanwhile, upper and middle castes dominate high-skill sectors, while marginalized groups remain concentrated in informal or low-wage work.
Such inequalities pose a long-term risk to social cohesion. Subramanian and Kapur caution that inclusive growth must go beyond GDP numbers to address disparities in opportunity. If left unaddressed, economic divergence can translate into political and social fragmentation — threatening the very unity that India’s democratic project seeks to protect.
4.5 Analytical Insights: Why India’s Model Is Risky
The Indian development model, while impressive in scale, carries inherent structural risks. Subramanian and Kapur outline several analytical takeaways that underscore these challenges:
- Democracy before development — India’s early adoption of democracy meant that policies had to balance growth with redistribution. This inclusive but resource-constrained approach slowed capital accumulation and infrastructure investment.
- Weak manufacturing base — The underperformance of labour-intensive industries limits job creation, particularly for India’s young and growing population.
- Globalisation’s unequal dividends — The benefits of liberalisation have primarily accrued to the skilled elite, leaving informal workers behind.
- Fragile state capacity — Many Indian states still struggle to provide quality education, healthcare, and law enforcement, hampering productivity and investment.
- Future imperatives — To sustain its odyssey, India must raise public and private investment rates, deepen structural reforms, create quality jobs, and strengthen welfare systems without undermining fiscal stability.
Subramanian and Kapur conclude that India’s “precocious” development experiment — democracy before wealth, services before manufacturing, inclusion before consolidation — is both its defining feature and its biggest vulnerability. The challenge now lies in turning this precocity into maturity: a stage where economic dynamism is matched by strong institutions, shared prosperity, and cohesive nationhood.
5. Contradictions, Risks, and Where India Stands Today
India’s economic journey has often been described as a paradox—a nation bursting with potential, yet facing persistent structural challenges. While the story of India’s growth is inspiring, scholars and authors have repeatedly highlighted contradictions and risks that could shape its future trajectory. Understanding these tensions is key to appreciating both India’s achievements and the hurdles that remain.
5.1 Contradictions
Democracy vs. Rapid Development
One of India’s most celebrated traits is its vibrant democracy. However, this democratic structure has, at times, slowed rapid economic development. Early post-independence India prioritized inclusive growth and social equity, often constraining policy decisions that might have accelerated industrialization. Reformers argue that, unlike China’s authoritarian model that allowed swift policy implementation, India’s need to balance competing interests—regional, caste-based, and political—meant that growth came with trade-offs. The result is a country that values political participation and social justice but sometimes at the cost of faster economic expansion.
High Growth, Low Income
India’s GDP growth figures are often impressive. Globally, it ranks among the fastest-growing economies, a fact that has drawn international attention. Yet, this aggregate growth masks deeper realities. Per capita income remains relatively low—hovering around USD 2,800—and a large segment of the population continues to live in poverty or in informal employment. The Diplomat has referred to this as the “but in the India story”: strong macroeconomic performance paired with uneven distribution of wealth. Growth, in other words, has not always translated into broad-based prosperity.
Services Over Manufacturing
The composition of India’s growth also presents a contradiction. The services sector—spanning IT, finance, and business process outsourcing—has been a key driver of GDP growth. While this sector boosts overall economic numbers, it does not generate employment at the scale needed to absorb India’s large labor force. Manufacturing, traditionally the engine of job creation in emerging economies, has not grown fast enough to provide meaningful employment for millions of low-skilled workers. Consequently, employment and income inequality remain pressing concerns.
Regional Divergence
Another notable contradiction lies in regional performance. States like Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, and Kerala consistently outperform others in terms of industrial output, human development, and infrastructure quality. In contrast, some northern and eastern states lag behind, creating stark regional disparities. These divergences raise questions about national cohesion and equitable development, as not all regions experience the benefits of growth equally.
State Capacity
Finally, India’s development trajectory is closely linked to state capacity. The ability to deliver public goods—such as healthcare, education, and infrastructure—varies widely across states. Weak institutional capacity can “disable” growth, as policymakers struggle to implement reforms effectively or address social needs. This uneven capacity underscores the importance of governance alongside economic policy: growth is not only about numbers but also about the systems that sustain it.
5.2 Where India Stands Today
Examining India’s current position provides clarity on how these contradictions play out in practice. According to recent World Bank and IMF data:
- Global Economic Standing: India has emerged as the world’s fifth-largest economy by nominal GDP share and remains the fastest-growing among major economies. Its demographic dividend, young workforce, and vibrant tech sector underpin this growth.
- Income and Inequality: Despite macroeconomic success, per capita GDP is modest at roughly USD 2,800. Income inequality is pronounced, and human development indicators such as education, health, and life expectancy remain below global averages.
- Employment Challenges: Labour force participation, especially among women, is low. A large share of the workforce remains in the informal sector, facing job insecurity and limited social protections.
- Manufacturing vs. Services: Manufacturing growth has been slower than hoped, restricting job creation. Meanwhile, the services sector dominates GDP but struggles to generate employment for lower-skilled workers.
- Critical Juncture: Scholars argue that India stands at a pivotal moment. If investment increases, reforms deepen, labor absorbs into productive work, and public goods strengthen, India’s development journey could accelerate. Conversely, if these challenges are neglected, the existing contradictions may widen, potentially threatening social cohesion and long-term growth.
5.3 Why This Matters
India’s development story carries lessons far beyond its borders. As Subramanian and Kapur emphasize, India provides a case study for other large, diverse democracies. It demonstrates that economic growth, social inclusion, and democratic governance can coexist, though not without trade-offs. For policymakers in other developing nations, India illustrates the delicate balance between pursuing rapid industrialization and maintaining social equity.
In essence, India’s journey is both instructive and cautionary. It reminds us that growth is not a single-dimensional metric: it encompasses political stability, income distribution, employment opportunities, and state capacity. By studying India, other countries can glean insights into managing complex, large-scale development while respecting the principles of democracy and social justice.
6.Lessons from the Odyssey: Views & Opinions
From my reading of the book’s synopsis, allied papers, and available data, several lessons emerge — insights that are relevant not just for India, but for development policy globally. Here’s a closer look.
6.1 Democracy is Not a Brake on Development; But It Changes the Bargain
One of the clearest lessons from India’s odyssey is that democracy does not inherently slow growth. Rather, it reshapes the nature of the development bargain. Unlike the “authoritarian developmental state” model seen in some East Asian economies, India has had to balance economic ambition with inclusion, accountability, and plurality.
In practical terms, this means policies must pass through multiple layers of political and social negotiation. While this can slow decision-making, it also ensures that development gains are more resilient and legitimate. Countries with democratic frameworks might struggle to emulate the rapid, top-down infrastructure or industrial pushes seen elsewhere, but the inclusive foundations laid through democratic processes create durability — a development that is built to last.
6.2 A Unique Path is Fine; Don’t Copy Blindly
India’s development journey reminds us that there is no one-size-fits-all growth model. Rather than mimicking East Asian strategies, India charted a unique course. Its emphasis on the services sector, the delayed but eventual manufacturing push, and its leadership in global IT services created a trajectory that suited India’s demographic and institutional realities.
For policymakers and development strategists, this is a critical lesson. Blind replication of another country’s model can be counterproductive. Instead, adapting strategies to local circumstances, leveraging strengths, and acknowledging constraints often yields more sustainable results. India’s story is proof that a tailored path — even if unconventional — can deliver both growth and resilience.
6.3 Jobs Matter — Not Just GDP
While GDP growth is often celebrated, India’s odyssey teaches that growth without job creation is incomplete. For a country with a large and youthful population, inclusive growth that generates meaningful employment is essential.
Rapid expansion in high-skill sectors, while impressive, does not automatically translate into livelihoods for the less-skilled workforce. Policymakers must prioritize employment-intensive strategies alongside productivity improvements. After all, without sufficient job creation, economic growth risks becoming a source of social frustration rather than empowerment.
6.4 Strengthen State Capacity and Public Goods
India’s experience underscores the importance of a capable state. Markets are powerful drivers of growth, but they cannot replace strong institutions that provide infrastructure, healthcare, education, law and order, and regulatory oversight.
As economists Subramanian and Kapur emphasize, a weak state does not simply fail to enable growth; it can actively disable progress. Investments in state capacity — whether building roads, ensuring quality schooling, or streamlining public services — are not ancillary but central to sustained development. A strong state, therefore, is a cornerstone of both growth and social stability.
6.5 Manage Diversity and Cohesion
Another vital takeaway is that economic growth alone cannot sustain a diverse nation. India’s odyssey highlights the importance of social cohesion, federal stability, and shared identity. In a society as diverse as India, forging unity while respecting pluralism is as critical as expanding GDP.
Social inclusion is not just a moral imperative; it is an economic one. Regions or communities left behind can destabilize broader development efforts. Policymakers must therefore prioritize policies that strengthen national cohesion, build trust across communities, and create equitable opportunities for all segments of society.
6.6 Beware of Complacency
Even impressive growth rates — 6-7% per year — can lull policymakers into complacency. The odyssey makes clear that headline growth figures are insufficient as a measure of development success. Structural transformation, higher productivity, increased investment, and meaningful job creation are essential to translate growth into tangible improvements in living standards.
India’s journey reminds us that growth is only the first step; sustaining it and ensuring it reaches the masses requires constant vigilance, reform, and innovation. Without this, development risks being shallow, uneven, or unsustainable.
6.7 Globalization is No Panacea for Mass Inclusion
Finally, globalization, while beneficial in many ways, is not a guaranteed path to inclusive development. India’s success in exporting high-skill services and nurturing global talent has benefited some segments, but large informal sectors and low-skilled populations remain vulnerable.
The odyssey teaches that integrating growth with broad-based inclusion is essential. Policies must focus on skill development, labor market reforms, social protection, and connecting global opportunities with local needs. Globalization can accelerate prosperity, but only if its benefits are widely shared.
In conclusion, India’s development odyssey offers lessons that extend far beyond its borders. Democracies must balance speed with legitimacy, nations should tailor paths to local realities, jobs and inclusion matter as much as GDP, and strong states and social cohesion are indispensable. Above all, the journey warns against complacency and blind faith in globalization. For India and other emerging economies, these lessons provide both guidance and a challenge: to craft growth that is resilient, inclusive, and transformative.
7. Visuals to clarity-8. Conclusion
The book A Sixth of Humanity by Arvind Subramanian and Devesh Kapur offers a compelling lens on India’s development odyssey: why it is distinct, where it has succeeded, where the contradictions lie, and what the path ahead may look like. India’s experiment — democracy, socialism and liberalisation rolled into one grand project — is unique in global history.
The evidence indicates that India has made substantial progress: poverty reduction, growth, infrastructure, digital inclusion. Yet the journey is far from over. Raising incomes, creating mass jobs, strengthening state capability, addressing regional and social disparities, manufacturing growth, and inclusive human development remain central challenges.
For policymakers, scholars and observers, India’s story is not simply a success story or cautionary tale; it is a rich case study of what happens when one-sixth of humanity tries to grow, change and unify at once. The odyssey offers both inspiration and a warning: the size of the prize is large, but so are the stakes and the structural constraints.
As India heads toward its centenary of independence in 2047, the questions become: Can it raise its investment rate, generate higher-quality jobs, deepen its manufacturing base, strengthen its public goods, and maintain social cohesion while preserving democratic vitality? The next chapter of India’s odyssey may well determine not just its future but the future contours of large developing democracies in the 21st century.
8. FAQs
Q1. Why is the book called A Sixth of Humanity?
Because India accounts for roughly one-sixth of the world’s population — and thus its development path has global significance. (The subtitle: “Independent India’s Development Odyssey”.)
Q2. What do the authors mean by India’s development being “precocious”?
They refer to India doing certain big things early: installing democratic universal suffrage before achieving high income; emphasising services before manufacturing; opening to globalisation in a manner that helped talent rather than masses. This early adoption of certain stages is what they call “precocious”.
Q3. Has India followed a “China model”?
No. One of the key arguments is that India’s path is different: it didn’t sacrifice democracy for growth, it emphasised services, it faced a huge diversity challenge, and it did multiple transformations simultaneously. So it is better seen as a distinct “Indian model” rather than a copy of China.
Q4. What are the biggest remaining challenges for India?
– Generating mass employment, especially in manufacturing and for less-skilled workers.
– Strengthening public goods (education, health, infrastructure) and state capacity.
– Addressing regional disparities and social inequality.
– Raising productivity, investment rates and linking growth with inclusion.
– Sustaining democratic and pluralistic institutions while delivering development.
Q5. Why is this book relevant for other countries?
Because India’s experience shows how a large and diverse democracy attempts development under constraints. Many emerging economies face similar issues of diversity, democracy, informal labour, weak state capacity — India’s odyssey offers lessons (both positive and cautionary) for them.
9. Sources
- Subramanian, Arvind et al. India’s Pattern of Development: What Happened, What Follows? IMF Working Paper 2006/022.
- Varshney, Ashutosh. “India’s Democracy at 70: Growth, Inequality, and Nationalism.” Journal of Democracy, vol.28, no.3, 2017.
- World Bank. “India Overview: Development news, research, data.” 2025.
- Kapur, Devesh & Subramanian, Arvind. “India’s Development Odyssey.” VoxDev, 2025.
- Kapur & Subramanian. “Rebuilding the Indian state” (Business Standard opinion), 2013.
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